1 U.S. Census Bureau, “National Population by Characteristics: 2020–2022,” 2022, https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2020s-national-detail.html.
2 Census Bureau, “Growth in the Nation’s Largest Counties Rebounds in 2022,” March 20, 2023, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/population-estimates-counties.html#:~:text=Over%20one%2Dhalf%20of%20all,saw%20no%20change%20in%20population.
3 Kenneth Johnson, “Rural America Lost Population Over the Past Decade for the First Time in History,” Carsey School of Public Policy | UNH, February 22, 2022, https://carsey.unh.edu/publication-rural-america-lost-population-over-past-decade-for-first-time-in-history.
4 Alison Felix & Kate Watkins, 2013. “The impact of an aging U.S. population on state tax revenues,” Economic Review, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, issue Q IV, pages 95–127., https://ideas.repec.org/a/fip/fedker/00002.html
5 Jordan Rappaport. 2003. “US Urban Decline and Growth, 1950 to 2000.” Economic Review – Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Vol. 88, no.3: 15–44. https://www.kansascityfed.org/documents/1131/2003‑U.S.%20Urban%20Decline%20and%20Growth,%201950%20to%202000.pdf
6 Jacob L. Vigdor, “Immigration, Housing Markets, and Community Vitality,” Cato Journal, Fall 2017, https://www.cato.org/cato-journal/fall-2017/immigration-housing-markets-community-vitality.
7 David J. Bier, “Immigrants & Their Kids Were 70% of U.S. Labor Force Growth Since 1995,” Cato at Liberty, May 15, 2023, https://www.cato.org/blog/immigrants-their-kids-were-70-us-labor-force-growth-1995.
8 Madeline Zavodny, “Why the United States Still Needs Foreign‐Born Workers,” NFAP Policy Brief, July 2023, https://nfap.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Why-The-United-States-Still-Needs-Foreign-Born-Workers.NFAP-Policy-Brief.-July-2023.pdf.
9 Madeline Zavodny, “Why the United States Still Needs Foreign‐Born Workers,” NFAP Policy Brief, July 2023, https://nfap.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Why-The-United-States-Still-Needs-Foreign-Born-Workers.NFAP-Policy-Brief.-July-2023.pdf.
10 Congressional Budget Office, “The Demographic Outlook: 2023 to 2053,” January 2023, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58912.
11 “The 2023 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Federal Old‐Age and Survivors Insurance and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds,” Board of Trustees of the Federal Old‐Age and Survivors Insurance and Federal Disability Insurance Trust Funds, March 31, 2023, https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/TR/2023/tr2023.pdf.
12 Jinill Kim, 2016. “The Effects of Demographic Change on GDP Growth in OECD Economies,” IFDP Notes 2016-09-28, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.), https://ideas.repec.org/p/fip/fedgin/2016–09-28.html
13 In current inflation adjusted dollars: Alex Nowrasteh, Sarah Eckhardt, & Michael Howard, “The Fiscal Impact of Immigration in the United States,” Cato Institute, March 2023, https://www.cato.org/white-paper/fiscal-impact-immigration-united-states
14 Michael A. Clemens, “The Fiscal Effect of Immigration: Reducing Bias in Influential Estimates,” IZA Discussion Paper No. 15592, September 2022, https://docs.iza.org/dp15592.pdf.
15 Doug Elmendorf, “CBO Reseases Two Analyses of the Senate’s Immigration Legislation,” Congressional Budget Office, June 2013, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/44345
16 Stuart Anderson, “Ph.D. Immigration Measure Removed, New Immigrant Visa Lawsuit Filed,” Forbes, July 14, 2022. https://www.forbes.com/sites/stuartanderson/2022/07/14/phd-immigration-measure-removed-new-immigrant-visa-lawsuit-filed/?sh=71b575a6166f
17 Mikael Juselius and Elöd Takáts, “Age and Inflation,” Finance and Development, March 2016. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2016/03/pdf/juselius.pdf.
18 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Job Openings: Total Nonfarm [JTSJOL], retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/JTSJOL, July 18, 2023.
19 World Bank Data, “GDP per capita (current US$) — United States,” July 2023, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=US.
20 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Job Openings, JOLTS, 2023, https://www.bls.gov/jlt/.
21 Yang Jie, “TSMC Delays Start of First Arizona Chip Factory, Citing Worker Shortage,” The Wall Street Journal, July 2023, https://www.wsj.com/articles/tsmc-delays-start-of-first-arizona-chip-factory-citing-worker-shortage-4a9344e5.
22 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employment Projections,” July 2023, https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/emp-by-detailed-occupation.htm.
23 Giovanni Peri and Chad Sparber, “Task Specialization, Immigration, and Wages,” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1, no. 3 (July 2009): 135–169.
24 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employment Projections,” July 2023, https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/emp-by-detailed-occupation.htm.
25 Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED), “All Employees, Skilled Nursing Care Facilities,” June 2023, https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CES6562310001.
26 Jennifer Hoff, “Nursing Homes Keep Losing Jobs, Leading to Closures,” KARE 11, March 2023, https://www.kare11.com/article/news/local/nursing-homes-losing-jobs-most-in-30-years-leading-to-closures/89–1f7fe7f3-5b7f-4ac7-b879-4fa420c3e440.
27 Chantel Barnes, “Workforce Crisis Plagues Texas Nursing Homes,” KXAN, November 2022, https://www.kxan.com/news/texas/workforce-crisis-plagues-texas-nursing-homes/.
28 Marcus L. Kearns, “26 Iowa Nursing Home Closures Due to Nursing Shortage,” Nursing CE Central, July 18, 2023, https://nursingcecentral.com/nursing-home-closures/#:~:text=Since%20June%202022%2C%20there%20have,to%20the%20national%20nursing%20shortage.
29 Edward Fitzpatrick, “87 percent of R.I. nursing homes are in danger of closing, report says,” The Boston Globe, updated May 18, 2022, https://www.bostonglobe.com/2022/05/18/metro/87-percent-ri-nursing-homes-are-danger-closing-report-says/.
30 CliftonLarsonAllen (CLA) LLP., “Initial Observations of SNF Trends Data Illustrates COVID-19 Challenges,” October 2021, https://www.claconnect.com/en/resources/articles/2021/initial-observations-of-snf-trends-data-illustrates-covid-19-challenges.
31 David C. Grabowski, Jonathan Gruber, Brian McGarry, “IMMIGRATION, THE LONG-TERM CARE WORKFORCE, AND ELDER OUTCOMES IN THE U.S.,” NBER Working Paper Series, February 2023, https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w30960/w30960.pdf.
32 National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN), “National Nursing Workforce Study,” April 2023, https://www.ncsbn.org/research/recent-research/workforce.page.
33 U.S. Department of Commerce, “Spotlight on Women and the Labor Force,” 2023, https://www.commerce.gov/bureaus-and-offices/ousea/spotlight-women-labor-force.
34 Jodi Askins, “New Survey: Staffing Crisis Eliminates At Least 30,000 Child Care Slots; 32,000 Children Sit on Waiting Lists — Low Wages to Blame,” Start Strong PA, April 2022, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c2e545d0dbda3cf1389658c/t/6272dffa8acf020b2ea34c3d/1651695610873/Staff_Crisis_Survey_RLS_041222.pdf.
35 Luca Powell & Derek Kravitz, “Disappearing Day Care,” Muckrock, August 2022, https://www.muckrock.com/childcare/.
36 Delia Furtado & Heinrich Hock, “Female Work and Fertility in the United States: Effects of Low‐Skilled Immigrant Labor,” September 2010, https://www.ucy.ac.cy/econ/wp-content/uploads/sites/48/2021/06/Hock-Furtado_current_2010.pdf
37 Particia Cortés & José Tessada, “Low‐Skilled Immigration and the Labor Supply of Highly Skilled Women,” American Economic Journal, vol. 3, no. 3, p. 88–123, July 2011, https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.3.3.88.
38 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Industries at a Glance,” July 2023, https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag23.htm. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Real Earnings – June 2023,” June 2023, https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/realer.pdf.
39 Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED), “Job Openings: Construction,” July 2023, https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/JTS2300JOL.
40 Terry Collins, “Few workers. Slow supplies. Why you’ll be waiting a while for that new house to be built,” USA Today, June 2022, https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2022/06/16/new-houses-longer-build-housing-labor-shortages/7572802001/.
41 Tallahassee Democrat, “Here’s How Construction Staff Supply Shortages Are Hitting Consumers,” July 2023, https://www.tallahassee.com/story/money/business/2023/07/19/heres-how-construction-staff-supply-shortage-are-hitting-consumers/70262091007/.
42 OECD Stat, Accessed July 2023, https://stats.oecd.org/.
43 Kenton J. Johnson, Hefei Wen, & Karen E. Joynt Maddox, “Lack Of Access To Specialists Associated With Mortality And Preventable Hospitalizations Of Rural Medicare Beneficiaries,” Health Affairs, December 2019, https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00838.
44 Jeanne Batalova, “Immigrant Health‐Care Workers in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute, April 2023, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/immigrant-health-care-workers-united-states.
45 Lightcast, “Active Job Listsings,” https://lightcast.io/job-postings-dashboard.
46 Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey — A‑30. Unemployed persons by occupation and sex,” August 2023, https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpseea30.htm.
47 Ondrej Burkacky, Ulrike Kingsbury, Andrea Pedroni, Giulietta Poltronieri, Matt Schrimper, & Brooke Weddle, “How Semiconductor Makers Can Turn a Talent Challenge into a Competitive Advantage,” McKinsey & Company, September 2022, https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/semiconductors/our-insights/how-semiconductor-makers-can-turn-a-talent-challenge-into-a-competitive-advantage
48 Department of Labor, “Performance Data,” https://www.dol.gov/agencies/eta/foreign-labor/performance.
49 Joshua Goodman, “Driven by Pandemic, Venezuelans Uproot Again to Come to U.S.,” Associated Press, June 2021, https://apnews.com/article/venezuela-immigration-business-coronavirus-pandemic-health-72e16118a21cf9ae3d0d4c9204f24643.
50 “Entrepreneurship and the Decline of American Growth,” JEC Republicans, December 2022. https://www.jec.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/aecd69fe-28e3-4fb7-9119–6ff15be1fa07/entrepreneurship.pdf.
51 Pierre Azoulay, Benjamin F. Jones, J. Daniel Kim, & Javier Miranda, “Immigration and Entrepreneurs in the United States,” American Economic Review: Insights, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 71–88, March 2022, https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aeri.20200588.
52 “New American Fortune 500 in 2023,” American Immigration Council, August 29, 2023. https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/new-american-fortune-500‑2023
53 Stuart Anderson, “Immigrant Entrepreneurs and U.S. Billion‐Dollar Companies,” National Foundation for American Policy (NFAP) Policy Brief, July 2022. https://nfap.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2022-BILLION-DOLLAR-STARTUPS.NFAP-Policy-Brief.2022.pdf.
54 David D. Kallick, “Bringing Vitality to Main Street: How Immigrant Small Businesses Help Local Economies Grow,” Fiscal Policy Institute, January 2015, https://www.as-coa.org/sites/default/files/ImmigrantBusinessReport.pdf.
55 David D. Kallick, “Immigrant Small Businesses in New York City,” Fiscal Policy Institute, October 2011, https://fiscalpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/FPI_ImmigrantSmallBusinessesNYC_20111003.pdf.
56 Stuart Anderson, “AI and Immigrants,” National Foundation for American Policy (NFAP) Policy Brief, June 2023, https://nfap.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/AI-AND-IMMIGRANTS.NFAP-Policy-Brief.2023.pdf.
57 Stuart Anderson, “Immigrant Entrepreneurs and U.S. Billion‐Dollar Companies,” National Foundation for American Policy (NFAP) Policy Brief, July 2022. https://nfap.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2022-BILLION-DOLLAR-STARTUPS.NFAP-Policy-Brief.2022.pdf.
58 Pierre Azoulay, Benjamin F. Jones, J. Daniel Kim, & Javier Miranda, “Immigration and Entrepreneurs in the United States,” American Economic Review: Insights, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 71–88, March 2022, https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aeri.20200588.
59 Jennifer Hunt, “Which Immigrants Are Most Innovative and Entrepreneurial?” Journal of Labor Economics 29 no. 3 (2011): 417–57.
60 Giovanni Peri, Kevin Shih and Chad Sparber, “STEM Workers, H‑1B Visas, and Productivity in U.S. Cities,” Journal of Labor Economics 33 (S1, Part 2): S225–S255, 2015.
61 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “FOREIGN-BORN WORKERS: LABOR FORCE CHARACTERISTICS,” 2022, https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/forbrn.pdf.
62 “Figures at a Glance,” UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html. State Department, “Admissions & Arrivals,” Refugee Processing Center, April 2021, https://www.wrapsnet.org/admissions-and-arrivals/.
63 David J. Bier, “8.3 Million Relatives of U.S. Citizens & Legal Residents Awaited Green Cards in 2022,” Cato at Liberty (blog), May 17, 2023. https://www.cato.org/blog/83-million-relatives-us-citizens-legal-residents-await-green-cards.
64 David J. Bier, “1.6 Million Family‐Sponsored Immigrants Will Die Before They Can Immigrate,” Cato at Liberty (blog), March 2022, https://www.cato.org/blog/16-million-family-sponsored-immigrants-will-die-they-can-immigrate.
65 David J. Bier, “1.8 Million in Employment‐Based Green Card Backlog,” Cato at Liberty (blog), August 29, 2023. Accessed September 9, 2022. https://www.cato.org/blog/18-million-employment-based-green-card-backlog.
66 “H‑1B Electronic Registration Process,” U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, July 31, 2023. https://www.uscis.gov/working-in-the-united-states/temporary-workers/h‑1b-specialty-occupations-and-fashion-models/h‑1b-electronic-registration-process.
67 Department of Labor, “Performance Data,” https://www.dol.gov/agencies/eta/foreign-labor/performance.
68 “Diversity Visa Program Statistics,” State Department, February 2023, https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/us-visas/immigrate/diversity-visa-program-entry/diversity-visa-program-statistics.html.
69 “U.S. World and Population Clock.” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/popclock/.
70 “Legal Immigration and Adjustment of Status Report Quarterly Data,” U.S. Department of Homeland Security, March 2023, https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/special-reports/legal-immigration/year-end.
71 David J. Bier, “The United States Does Not Permit More Immigration Than the Rest of the World Combined,” Cato at Liberty (blog), July 2022, https://www.cato.org/blog/us-does-not-permit-more-immigration-rest-world.
72 David J. Bier, “US Foreign‐Born Share Ranks Low & Is Falling Among Wealthy Countries,” Cato at Liberty (blog), July 2022, https://www.cato.org/blog/us-foreign-born-share-ranks-low-falling-among-wealthy-countries.
73 “Refugee Data Finder,” UNHCR, https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=c1lN2c.
74 Census Bureau, “American Community Survey,” 1‑year sample, 2021.
75 Monras, Joan, Javier Vázquez‐Grenno, and Ferran Elias, “Understanding the Effects of Legalizing Undocumented Immigrants,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper 18–283. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research (2018). https://doi.org/10.17848/wp18-283
76 Matthew Freedman, Emily Owens, and Sarah Bohn, “Immigration, Employment Opportunities, and Criminal Behavior,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 10, no. 2 (2018): 117–51; Katharine Donato, Jorge Durand, and Douglas Massey, “Stemming the Tide? Assessing the Deterrent Effects of the Immigration Reform and Control Act,” Demography 29, no. 2 (1992): 139–57; Katharine Donato and Douglas Massey, “Effect of the Immigration Reform and Control Act on the Wages of Mexican Migrants,” Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 3 (1993): 523–41; Elaine Sorensen and Frank Bean, “The Immigration Reform and Control Act and the Wages of Mexican Origin Workers: Evidence from Current Population Surveys,” Social Science Quarterly 75, no. 1 (1994): 1–17; Cynthia Bansak and Steven Raphael, “Immigration Reform and the Earnings of Latino Workers: Do Employer Sanctions Cause Discrimination?,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 54, no. 2 (2001): 275–95; Sherrie Kossoudju and Deborah Cobb‐Clark, “Coming Out of the Shadows: Learning about Legal Status and Wages from the Legalized Population,” Journal of Labor Economics 20, no. 3 (2002): 598–628; Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), pp. 119–21.
77 Sankar Mukhopadhyay and David Oxborrow, “The Value of an Employment‐Based Green Card,” Demography 49 (2012): 219–237, published December 13, 2011, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13524-011‑0079-3.
78 Elira Kuka, Na’ama Shenhav, and Kevin Shih, “Do Human Capital Decisions Respond to the Returns to Education? Evidence from DACA,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 12, no. 1 (February 2020): 293–324, https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pol.20180352.
79 Tom K. Wong, et al., Results from Tom K. Wong et al., 2020 National DACA Study, https://cdn.americanprogress.org/content/uploads/2020/10/02131657/DACA-Survey-20201.pdf
80 Erin R. Hamilton, Caitlin Patler, Robin Savinar, “Transition into Liminal Legality: DACA’s Mixed Impacts on Education and Employment among Young Adult Immigrants in California”, Social Problems, Volume 68, Issue 3, August 2021, Pages 675–695, https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa016