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Rather than forming independent thinkers

for public education--that it should inform

capable of intelligent self-governance, they were

the people so that they can recognize and

training children to follow the rules and rou-

resist oppressive government--public school-

tines of industrial employment.

ing was itself imposed by governments to cre-

It was in this environment that John

ate obedient factory workers.

Dewey, arguably the most famous and influ-

By the end of the 19th century, public

ential American education philosopher, wrote

schooling had thus proven itself not a unify-

Democracy and Education. In it, he revolted

ing force, but a divisive one--particularly in

against the then-dominant industrial model

the way it forced different religious groups

of schooling and set forth public schooling

into conflict. And one of the few respects in

designs that he thought would truly prepare

which it may have succeeded in promoting

diverse American children to live in harmony

unity, shaping masses of students for work in

and take care of both themselves and the

factory jobs with little upward mobility, was

republic. "The increased political and eco-

a far cry from Horace Mann's ideal system

nomic emancipation of the `masses' has

that would "obliterate factitious distinctions

shown itself in education," he wrote. "But the

in society."

revolution is still incomplete. The idea still

How did it do at getting people to embrace

prevails that a truly cultural or liberal educa-

their civic duties? Unfortunately, there is no

tion cannot have anything in common, direct-

clear evidence one way or the other on this

ly at least, with industrial affairs, and that the

point. But although no strong evidence has

education which is fit for the masses must be

been found that public schooling increased

a useful or practical education in a sense

voting rates (though more education in gener-

which opposes useful and practical to nurture

al is correlated with a greater tendency to vote),

of appreciation and liberation of thought."37

at the very least voting participation did rise

through the latter two-thirds of the 19th cen-

To achieve "liberation of thought" for all

tury, when common schooling was growing.

children, Dewey thought that schooling

Between 1832 and 1844, the average turnout

must be a student-centered process in which

of eligible voters in presidential elections was

children interacted with each other regard-

68.6 percent. By the period between 1884 and

less of class, race, or other stratifying charac-

1892, average turnout had risen to 77.7 per-

teristics, pursuing knowledge on the basis of

cent, and had grown steadily in each 12-year

their own interests. The objective was to

period between the two cited here.36 Of course,

make learning an appealing process, while

teaching children to live united and tolerant

there could be many causes for this steady

in a free, pluralistic society:

increase--people were already civic-minded;

immigrants who'd fled oppressive political

A democracy is more than a form of gov-

conditions gladly voted; the run-up to and

By the early

ernment; it is primarily a mode of asso-

ramifications of the Civil War heightened the

decades of the

ciated living, a conjoint communicated

political stakes, and so forth--but at least it

experience. The extension in space of the

can be said that voter turnout rose at the same

20th century, it

number of individuals who participate

time public schooling was spreading.

was clear that the

in an interest so that each has to refer his

own action to that of others, and to con-

From Dewey to Today

reality of public

sider the action of others to give point

By the early decades of the 20th century, it

schooling had

and direction to his own, is equivalent to

was clear that the reality of public schooling

departed radically

the breaking down of those barriers of

had departed radically from "foundation of

class, race, and national territory which

democracy" rhetoric. Rather than uniting

from "foundation

kept men from perceiving the full

Americans, the public schools were either serv-

of democracy"

import of their activity. . . . Obviously a

ing pre-existing homogeneous communities or

rhetoric.

society to which stratification into sepa-

causing disputes among heterogeneous ones.

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