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same time, in 1973, came the introduction of

able, interviews,29 and personal experience,30 it

the all-volunteer force, which most profes-

would seem that most observers agree that

sional military officers initially opposed.

the factors behind the Hollow Force involved

Although the all-volunteer force has general-

much more than just inexperienced people

ly worked well, at the time it was a major cul-

and a lack of spare parts and munitions. And,

tural change for the professional military and

while once again readiness was a factor, it was

yet another factor with which to cope. That

only one of many.

temporary dislocation occurred at about the

A Demoralized Military. Underlining all the

same time as discipline and morale were

other factors that contributed to the Hollow

eroding because of drug and racial problems.

Force of the 1970s was a generally demoral-

Introduction of Total Force Concept. The Total

ized military after the debacle of Vietnam.

Force (also introduced in 1973) integrated

This is sometimes forgotten in the late

the reserves into the active-duty force. The

1990s--when the military is one of the few

active force could no longer deploy without

institutions still held in high esteem. Much

calling up reserve units. That decision was

of that esteem is a result of the spectacular

made deliberately by the Army to force the

victory in Desert Storm. The United States

politicians to call up reserves--which was

certainly did not win in Vietnam. There was a

generally avoided during Vietnam. In the

general feeling in the military that the press

past, reserves had simply reinforced the active

and politicians had lost the war. Vietnam was

forces. Now, however, whole units, such as

the only war from which veterans returned to

logistics support and even certain crucial

scorn instead of parades. As Kitfield explains,

combat units, were put in the reserves. Active-

well over a generation was required for the

duty divisions could not deploy without their

military to work this out.

reserve brigade "round-out" units. In 1979

Major Drug Problems. One of the major

Shy Meyer's complaint to President Carter

problems facing the military was a very seri-

was that he was too reliant on the reserves to

ous drug problem, which was not cleared up

rush ready forces to Europe. Like the intro-

until around 1980. The problem started in

duction of the all-volunteer armed force, the

the later stages of the Vietnam War--when

Total Force concept was not necessarily bad,

drugs were easily obtained--but it continued

but it was another challenge with which to

in too many quarters throughout the 1970s.

cope.

In some units, up to 50 percent of the per-

Induction of Women. Soon after the intro-

sonnel were on drugs. Even the best units had

duction of the all-volunteer force and the

some drug problems.

Total Force concept came the induction of

Major Racial Problems. Another serious

A closer look at

more women into the military. This step was

social problem was racial relations. Ironically,

the Hollow Force

epitomized by the opening of the service

racial relations generally went well during

shows that it

academies to women in 1976. The Carter

most of the Vietnam War--even when blacks

administration also proposed lifting bans on

often made up a strikingly disproportionate

involved much

women in combat. This development was yet

portion of the combat troops. But by the late

more than just

another factor that, although not necessarily

1960s and early 1970s, those relations started

poor readiness.

negative, was temporarily disruptive of a mil-

to break down. After Martin Luther King's

itary trying to cope with everything else.

assassination, the rise of the black power

Miscategorization of Mental Groups. There

movement, and riots in cities, the military

was a major miscategorization of mental

found it was not immune to racial problems.

groups in the mid-1970s. The military uses

Those problems were particularly pro-

an Armed Services Vocational Aptitude

nounced on larger ships, such as aircraft car-

Battery test (ASVAB), which breaks down

riers. The Army also had serious problems,

potential recruits into five categories. The

especially in units based overseas.

military tries to recruit from the first two cat-

Introduction of the All-Volunteer Force. At the

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