"Renewable Energy," pp. 55, 63.
of 1 percent, comparable to the world market
share of wind, solar, and geothermal combined.
106. M. L. Legerton et al., "Exchange of
Martin Daniel, "Finance for Energy," FT Energy
Availability/Performance Data and Information
World, Summer 1997, p. 5; and EIA, International
on Renewable Energy Plant: Wind Power Plants,"
Energy Annual 1996, p. 20.
Paper presented to the 17th Congress of the
World Energy Council, September 15, 1998, pp.
95. Shell International Limited, "Shell Invests
56. This cost estimate is exclusive of major tax
US$0.5 Billion in Renewables," Press release,
preferences.
October 16, 1997; and Sam Fletcher, "Shell to
Spend $1 Billion on 3 Deep Gulf Fields," Oil Daily,
107. Bradley, "Renewable Energy," pp. 712.
March 20, 1998, p. 1.
108. Adolf Huitti, "Challenges of the Power Plant
96. Quoted in Amal Nag, "Big Oil's Push into
Market," in World Energy (New York: McGraw-
Solar Irks Independents," Wall Street Journal,
Hill, 1998), p. 55.
December 8, 1980, p. 31.
109. Alliance to Save Energy et al., Energy
97. Charles Burck, "Solar Comes Out of the
Shadows," Fortune, September 24, 1979, p. 75.
Innovations: A Prosperous Path to a Clean Environment
(Washington: ASE, June 1997), p. 37. See also
Adam Serchuk and Robert Means, "Natural Gas:
98. Paul Gipe, "Removal and Restoration Costs:
Bridge to a Renewable Energy Future," REPP Issue
Who Will Pay?" Wind Stats Newsletter, Spring
Brief, May 1997. The Department of Energy in its
1997, p. 1. See also Bradley, "Renewable Energy,"
most recent 20-year forecast states, "Low fossil fuel
pp. 2022.
prices are expected to continue to hamper the
99. John Berger, Charging Ahead: The Business of
development of renewable energy sources." EIA,
Renewable Energy and What It Means for America
International Energy Outlook 1998, p. 5.
(New York: Henry Holt, 1997), pp. 45. This book
110. In 1996 wind and solar plants operated at 22
provides an in-depth look at the personal hard-
percent and 31 percent capacity factors, respec-
ships, financial precariousness, shifting govern-
tively. EIA, Renewable Energy Annual 1997
ment subsidies, and occasional environmental
(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1998),
degradation associated with unconventional
p. 12.
energy development in this period.
111. The lower energy loss of natural gas trans-
100. Flavin and Lenssen, pp. 17677. Biopower
portation relative to electricity transmission dic-
can be carbon neutral if its inputs are replanted to
tates that gas power plants be located close to
create sinks (a "closed loop" system), leaving cost
their market. Wind and solar farms, on the other
and quantity as the major issues.
hand, often have to be away from their market
centers and must have their transmission lines
101. EIA, Renewable Energy Annual 1995 (Washing-
sized at peak output despite their low average
ton: U.S. Department of Energy, 1995), p. 78; and
capacity factor. Ballonoff, p. 47.
Bradley, "Renewable Energy," pp. 3334.
102. Ibid., pp. 2628.
112. U.S. Department of Energy and Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), Renewable Energy
103. See, for example, Rebecca Stanfield, "Lethal
Technology Characterizations (Pleasant Hill, Calif.:
Loophole: A Comprehensive Report on America's
EPRI, 1997), p. 2-1.
Dirtiest Power Plants and the Loophole That
113. Ibid.
Allows Them to Pollute" United States Public
Interest Research Group, Washington, June 1998,
114. The biopower cost estimate is the bottom of
p. 11.
the range for existing plants given by DOE and
104. Kenneth Lay, "The Energy Industry in the
EPRI and a current estimate by the EIA. Ibid.; and
Next Century: Opportunities and Constraints,"
Roger Diedrich, industry analyst, EIA, conversa-
in Energy after 2000, ed. Irwin Stelzer (Seville,
tion with the author, September 1, 1998. For wind
Spain: Fundacion Repsol, 1998), p. 23.
and solar estimates, see Pfeifenberger et al., p. 4.
See also Bradley, "Renewable Energy," p. 11, for
105. Expenditures of the Department of Energy,
wind power; and Solarex, "Everything You
since its creation, on wind and solar energy have
Always Wanted to Know about Solar Power,"
averaged, respectively, nearly 4 cents and 23 cents
Company pamphlet, March 1997, p. 3, for solar
per kWh produced. Other renewable and fossil-
power. The 6 cents per kWh for wind at ideal
fuel technologies for electricity generation have
U.S. sites with scale economies is exclusive not
averaged less than 1 cent per kWh. Bradley,
45