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ket, displacing coal and oil before being dis-

track into the home whenever it

placed itself by renewables later in the next

rained. New York insurance actuaries

century.3 9

had established by the turn of the cen-

Natural gas combined-cycle and cogenera-

tury that infectious diseases, includ-

tion technologies also have some environ-

ing typhoid fever, were much more

mental advantages over their renewable

frequently contracted by livery stable

rivals. A state-of-the-art natural gas plant can

keepers and employees than by other

favorably compare with wind farms in terms

occupational groups. . . . The flies that

of land disturbance, wildlife impacts, visual

bred on the ever present manure

blight, noise, and front-end (infrastructure-

heaps carried more than thirty com

-

related) air emissions. Back-end air emission

municable diseases. . . . Traffic was

reductions are where wind turbines must

often clogged by the carcasses of over-

stake their entire environmental claim.4 0

worked dray horses that dropped in

Solar farms (in contrast to distributed solar

their tracks during summer heat

applications) are so land intensive, resource

waves or had to be destroyed after

intensive, and economically impractical that

stumbling on slippery payments and

Christopher Flavin of the Worldwatch

breaking their legs. About 15,000

Institute has stated a preference for on-site

dead horses were removed from the

power generation options, including natural

streets of New York each year. Urban

gas microturbines.4 1

sanitation departments, responsible

for daily cleaning up of this mess,

Coal-fired electricity generation is far less

were not only expensive but typically

polluting today than it was in the 1970s.

graft- and corruption-ridden. . . .

However, it originally was the most polluting

These conditions were characteristic

technology of all fossil-fuel alternatives and

in varying degree of all of our large

remains so today, relative to modern oil and

42

and medium-sized cities.

natural gas technologies. In one sense that is

a problem; in another sense it is an opportu-

nity for further reductions of emissions to

The internal combustion engine would

help produce what is rapidly becoming an

create its own emission problems, but nearly

environmentally benign mix of electricity-

a century after its introduction it has become

generating resources as defined by environ-

far more environmentally benign and is con-

mental regulators themselves.

tinually proving itself compatible with

improving environmental conditions.

Indoor air quali-

Cleaner Vehicles

Vehicle pollution has declined in recent

The internal combustion engine and

decades thanks to a combination of greater

ty has not shown

"antiseptic automobile traffic" solved the

fuel efficiency per vehicle, cleaner motor

the improvement

environmental problem of "horse emissions"

fuels, and onboard technological improve-

earlier this century. James Flink explained:

ments, such as catalytic converters. Those

of outdoor air

developments mean that more cars and

quality.

In New York City alone at the turn of

increased travel mileage no longer increase

the century, horses deposited on the

pollution in the aggregate. As older cars leave

streets every day an estimated 2.5 mil-

the fleet, progressively cleaner cars are taking

lion pounds of manure and 60,000

their place. New passenger cars in the United

gallons of urine, accounting for about

States have reduced major emissions by more

two-thirds of the filth that littered the

than 90 percent. A newer car making the 230-

city's streets. Excreta from horses in

mile trip from Washington, D.C., to New

the form of dried dust irritated nasal

York City, for example, emits less pollution

passages and lungs, then became a

than a gasoline-powered lawnmower emits

syrupy mass to wade through and

cutting an average-sized yard. Appreciated

10