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Support of the Policy Statement on Early Childhood,"

February 1993, p. 2.

35.  Karen Lafayette, Democratic Vermont state representa-

tive, quoted in Geggis.

36.

Kagan and Cohen, "Not by Chance," p. 5.

37.  Superintendent's Universal Preschool Task Force,

California Department of Education "Executive Summary of

the Universal Preschool Task Force Report," http://www.

cde.ca.gov/preschool/index.htm.

38.  Craig T. Ramey and Frances A. Campbell, "Poverty,

Early Childhood Education, and Academic Competence: The

Abecedarian Experiment," in Children in Poverty: Child

Development and Public Policy, ed. Aletha C. Huston

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 218.

39.  This discussion of early intervention does not con-

sider the health or nutrition components of early inter-

vention programs.  The focus is on the social, emotional,

and cognitive impacts that early intervention may have on

children as those components are directly relevant to the

debate over universal preschool.

40.  Lower rates of placement in special education classes

and less grade retention are not unequivocally beneficial.

See Charles Locurto, "Beyond IQ in Preschool Programs?"

Intelligence 15 (1991): 298, 301.

41.  Arthur J. Reynolds et al., "The State of Early

Childhood Intervention: Effectiveness, Myths and Realities,

New Directions," Focus 1, no. 19 (Summer-Fall 1997): 6.

42.  See, for example, Lynn A. Karoly et al., Investing in

Our Children (Santa Monica: RAND, 1998), pp. 61­68; and

Donna Bryant and Kelly Maxwell, "The Effectiveness of

Early Intervention for Disadvantaged Children," in The

Effectiveness of Early Intervention, ed. Michael J.

Guralnick (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1997), pp. 42­43.

43.  Nancy L. Karweit, "Effective Preschool Programs for

Students at Risk," in Effective Programs for Students at

Risk, ed. R. E. Slavin (Needham, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon,

1989), pp. 75­102; and Bryant and Maxwell, pp. 24­25.

44.  David Elkind, Miseducation: Preschoolers at Risk

(1987; New York: Knopf, 1997), p. 69.

45.

Zigler, "Formal Schooling for Four-Year-Olds?" p. 28.