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15. Anne Mitchell, Carol Ripple, and Nina Chanana,
"Prekindergarten Programs Funded by the States: Essential
Elements for Policy Makers," Families and Work Institute,
New York, July 1998, pp. 2829, 3637, 4446, 5658,
6162.
16. Not included are city and county investments or state
actions that direct federal funds to specific projects to
benefit preschoolers, such as Head Start programs. See
ibid., pp. 3-6.
17. Jane Knitzer and Stephen Page, "Map and Track: State
Initiatives for Young Children and Families," National
Center for Children in Poverty, New York, 1998.
18.
Ibid., pp. 34, 45.
19.
Ibid., p. 7.
20.
Ibid., p. 15.
21. General Accounting Office, "Federal Child Care
Funding," GAO/HEHS-98-70R, January 23, 1998, pp. 3, 89.
22. The General Accounting Office could not report a pre-
cise figure for total federal spending because many pro-
gram administrators were unable to determine how much they
spent on children under age five. See General Accounting
Office, "Early Childhood Programs and Overlapping Target
Groups," GAO/HEHS-95-4FS, October 1994, pp. 25.
23. Mary K. Novello, "A Case against Compulsion,"
Washington Institute Foundation, Seattle, Policy Brief,
March 1998, p. 3.
24. Education Commission of the States Information
Clearinghouse, "Compulsory School Age Requirements,"
Clearinghouse Notes, March 1994; and Education Commission
of the States Information Clearinghouse, "State
Characteristics: Kindergarten," April 1997. See also
http://www.ecs.org.
25. Kenneth Duckworth, Encyclopedia of Educational Research,
6th ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1992), vol. 1, p. 100.
26. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S.
Department of Education, "Dramatic Expansion Proposed for
After-School Programs," OERI Bulletin, Fall 1998, p. 3.
See also Ron Haskins, "Beyond Metaphor: The Efficacy of
Early Childhood Education," American Psychologist 44, no 2
(February 1989): 280.