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that child-care factors account for only 1.3 percent to

3.6 percent of differences in cognitive and language per-

formance, compared with the 5 percent to 41 percent of the

differences that are traceable to all variables, including

family income, mother's vocabulary, the child's gender, and

family environment.33  And, as this paper will show, there

is no evidence that universal preschool would promote

children's healthy development or result in lasting gains

to children.  Indeed, there is a large body of evidence

indicating that early schooling can be harmful to young

children.

Finally, interest in preschool is increasing because

advocates have advanced the theory that it can inoculate

children against problems that are often associated with

poor and one-parent families, including below-average

school performance, drug use, teenage pregnancy, and juve-

nile delinquency.  Advocates have made the following

claims:

· Preschool saves money by improving students' academ-

ic performance: "Investing $1 in quality early educa-

tion saves $7 by reducing later grade retention and

special education placement and increasing high school

graduation rates."34

· Preschool reduces delinquency: "It's going to be

hard to ask taxpayers for more education money, but

we do think this [universal preschool] will save on

special education costs, as well as the very explo-

sive incarceration budget."35

· Preschool increases self-sufficiency and reduces

delinquency and welfare use: "Many of these positive

effects [of early care and education programs] may

linger and contribute to children's increased cognitive

abilities, positive classroom learning behaviors, long-

term school success, and even improved likelihood of

long-term social and economic self-sufficiency. . . .

Indeed, investments in quality early care and educa-

tion save society future costly and lengthy expendi-

tures for incarceration or welfare."36

· Preschool improves the workforce: "To develop the

highly educated workforce needed in the twenty-first

century, we must change our way of thinking about

early education and provide quality preschool programs

to help our children succeed."37

· Early intervention can prevent intergenerational

poverty: "Children from low-resource families require