<<  <  >  >>

without explicitly stating just what their

gests that state and local officials should dis-

ideas really were.

mantle or avoid regional governments, and in

Planners, however, had few tools that they

particular regional growth-management plan-

could use to promote their idea of orderly

ning.

growth, whatever that was. The first zoning

codes, passed by New York City in 1919 and

A History of Regional

other cities soon after, focused on maintain-

Government

ing the existing character and quality of

neighborhoods of single-family homes.

When a real estate developer in Euclid, Ohio,

Regional government was a moot point

challenged one of these zoning codes, it was

during most of the 19th century, when urban

overturned by lower courts as an unconstitu-

Americans nearly all lived in cities and those

tional taking of property without compensa-

cities readily annexed new developments that

tion. When the case reached the Supreme

took place on their fringes. But in 1873,

Court, the court rejected arguments by the

Brookline, Massachusetts, became the first

city of Euclid that the code was needed to

suburb to reject a major city’s offer to be

annexed.7 This started a trend that soon led to

preserve the character of the neighborhood.

Cities view

However, the court agreed with the argument

a clear split between the center cities and their

suburbanites as

of an intervener that the code was a constitu-

suburbs.

tional exercise of police powers to prevent

By the mid-20th century, many suburban-

parasites,

nuisances.10

ites viewed the cities as cesspools of corrup-

enjoying the

tion, and they didn’t want to see their taxes

If zoning could be used only to prevent

economic and

going into the pockets of aldermen or their

nuisances, then regional planners would

contractor friends. Most states did not allow

have little ability to control growth. It might

cultural benefits

cities to annex without the permission of the

be easy to show that pollution-emitting fac-

of the cities

people being annexed, and that permission

tory in the middle of a residential neighbor-

was often difficult to obtain.

hood would be a nuisance, but it would be

without paying

Central city officials, meanwhile, complain-

much harder to show that someone develop-

their full share

ed that the average income of the people who

ing vacant land on the edge of a city was cre-

of the costs.

moved to the suburbs was higher than the peo-

ating a nuisance.

ple left behind, which tended to mean lower tax

Cities could exercise some control over de-

revenues for the cities. The cities came to view

velopment by limiting the expansion of urban

suburbanites as parasites, enjoying the eco-

services such as sewer and water. However,

nomic and cultural benefits of the cities with-

they could not prevent developers from pro-

out paying their full share of the costs.

viding their own sewer, water, and other ser-

Urban planners who advocated regional

vices by creating special service districts or

government were not primarily concerned

incorporating their own cities. As long as de-

with municipal finance. They spoke instead

velopers had such freedom, regional planners

of “rapid and often chaotic growth,” which

were helpless to direct or control new develop-

they contrasted with their “visions of pro-

ment.

moting orderly urban regions with planned

One response was the idea of city-city or city-

communities and efficient infrastructure sys-

county consolidations. Such consolidations

tems.”8 “Central cities and suburbs are inter-

would give the central city greater control over

what happened in areas that were previously

dependent and cannot survive in the present

outside of its jurisdiction. Before World War II,

governmental and physical chaos,” argued

one planning professor.9 The repeated use of

several cities were able to persuade some or all

of their suburbs to consolidate, including New

vague terms like “chaos” and “order” sug-

York City (1898), Denver (1902), and Honolulu

gests that planners were trying to make their

(1907). But suburbs of Oakland, St. Louis,

ideas attractive to a broad range of people

3